This article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (October 2012)

Women in India

Pratibha Devisingh Patil was the 12th President of the Republic of India and first woman to hold the office.[1]
Gender Inequality Index[2]
Value	0.610 (2012)
Rank	132 out of 146
Maternal mortality (per 100,000)	200 (2008)
Women in parliament	10.9% (2012)
Females over 25 with secondary education	26.6% (2010)
Women in labour force	29.0% (2011)
Global Gender Gap Index[3]
Value	0.6442 (2012)
Rank	105th out of 135
v t e

The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia.^[4][5] From equal status with men in ancient times^[6] through the low points of the medieval period,^[7] to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women in India has been eventful. In modern India, women have held high offices in India including that of the President, Prime Minister, Speaker of the Lok Sabha and Leader of the Opposition. As of 2011^[update], the Speaker of the Lok Sabha and the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha (Lower House of the parliament) were women. However, women in India continue to face atrocities such as rape, acid throwing, dowry killings while young girls are forced into prostitution; as of late rape has seen a sharp increase following several high profile cases of young girls brutally raped in public areas.^[8][9][10] According to a global poll conducted by Thomson Reuters, India is the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world for women,^[11][12] and the worst country for women among the G20 countries.^[13]

Contents 1 History 1.1 Ancient India 1.2 Medieval period 1.3 Historical practices 1.4 British rule 2 Independent India 3 Timeline 4 Culture 5 Education and economic development 5.1 Education 5.2 Workforce participation 5.3 Land and property rights 6 Crimes against women 6.1 Acid Throwing 6.2 Child marriage 6.3 Domestic violence 6.4 Dowry 6.5 Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion 6.6 Rape 6.7 Sexual harassment 6.8 Trafficking 7 Other concerns 7.1 Social opinions 7.2 Health 7.3 Eve teasing 7.4 Family planning 7.5 Sex ratios 7.6 Sanitation 8 Notable Indian women 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links

History

Ancient India

Scholars believe that in ancient India, women enjoyed equal status with men in all aspects of life.^[14] However, some have contrary views.^[15] Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in the early Vedic period.^[16][17] Rigvedic verses suggest that women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their own husbands.^[18] Scriptures such as the Rig Veda and Upanishads mention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitreyi.^[19]

There are very few texts specifically dealing with the role of women^[20] an important exception is the Stri Dharma Paddhati of Tryambakayajvan, an official at Thanjavur c. 1730. The text compiles strictures on women's behaviour dating back to the Apastamba sutra (c. 4th century BCE).^[21] The opening verse goes:

mukhyo dharmaH smr^tiShu vihito bhartr^shushruShANam hi :

women are enjoined to be of service to their husbands.

Some kingdoms in ancient India had traditions such as nagarvadhu ("bride of the city"). Women competed to win the coveted title of nagarvadhu. Amrapali is the most famous example of a nagarvadhu.

According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic period.^[22] However in approximately 500 B.C., the status of women began to decline with the Smritis (esp. Manusmriti), and with the Islamic invasion of Babur and the Mughal empire and Christianity later curtailing women's freedom and rights.^[7]

Although reform movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to religious orders, by and large women in India faced confinement and restrictions.^[22] The practice of child marriages is believed to have started around the sixth century.^[23]

Medieval period

Indian women's position in society further deteriorated during the medieval period,^[7][14] when Sati, child marriages and a ban on remarriage by widows became part of social life in some communities in India. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent brought purdah to Indian society. Among the Rajputs of Rajasthan, the Jauhar was practised. In some parts of India, the Devadasis or temple women were sexually exploited. Polygamy was widely practised, especially among Hindu Kshatriya rulers.^[23] In many Muslim families, women were restricted to Zenana areas of the house.

In spite of these conditions, some women became prominent in the fields of politics, literature, education and religion.^[7] Razia Sultana became the only woman monarch to have ever ruled Delhi. The Gond queen Durgavati ruled for fifteen years before losing her life in a battle with Mughal emperor Akbar's general Asaf Khan in 1564. Chand Bibi defended Ahmednagar against the powerful Mughal forces of Akbar in the 1590s. Jehangir's wife Nur Jehan effectively wielded imperial power, and was recognized as the real power behind the Mughal throne. The Mughal princesses Jahanara and Zebunnissa were well-known poets, and also influenced the ruling powers. Shivaji's mother, Jijabai, was queen regent because of her ability as a warrior and an administrator. In South India, many women administered villages, towns, and divisions, and ushered in new social and religious institutions.^[23]

The Bhakti movements tried to restore women's status and questioned certain forms of oppression.^[22] Mirabai, a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement figures. Other female saint-poets from this period included Akka Mahadevi, Rami Janabai and Lal Ded. Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as the Mahanubhav, Varkari and many others were principle movements within the Hindu fold openly advocating social justice and equality between men and women.

Immediately following the Bhakti movements, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs, preached equality between men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to lead religious assemblies; to lead congregational hymn singing called Kirtan or Bhajan; to become members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the battlefield; to have equality in marriage, and to have equality in Amrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus also preached against the discrimination against women.

Historical practices

Traditions such as sati, jauhar, and devadasi among some communities have been banned and are largely defunct in modern India. However, some instances of these practices are still found in remote parts of India. The purdah is still practised by Indian women in some communities, and child marriage remains prevalent despite it being illegal under current Indian law.

Sati

Sati is an old, almost completely defunct custom among some communities, in which the widow was immolated alive on her husband's funeral pyre. Although the act was supposed to be voluntary on the widow's part, it is believed to have sometimes been forced on the widow. It was abolished by the British in 1829. There have been around forty reported cases of sati since independence.^[24] In 1987, the Roop Kanwar case in Rajasthan led to The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act.^[25]

Jauhar

Jauhar refers to the practice of voluntary immolation by wives and daughters of defeated warriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent molestation by the enemy. The practice was followed by the wives of defeated Rajput rulers, who are known to place a high premium on honour.

Purdah

Purdah is the practice among some communities of requiring women to cover their bodies so as to conceal their skin and form. It imposes restrictions on the mobility of women, curtails their right to interact freely, and is a symbol of the subordination of women. It does not reflect the religious teachings of either Hinduism or Islam, contrary to common belief.^{[citation needed]}

Devadasis

Devadasi is a religious practice in some parts of southern India, in which women are "married" to a deity or temple. The ritual was well-established by the 10th century A.D.^[26] In later periods, illegitimate sexual exploitation of devadasis became the norm in some parts of India.

British rule

European scholars observed in the 19th century that Hindu women are "naturally chaste" and "more virtuous" than other women.^[27] During the British Raj, many reformers such as Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Jyotirao Phule, etc., fought for the betterment of women. Peary Charan Sarkar, a former student of Hindu College, Calcutta and a member of "Young Bengal", set up the first free school for girls in India in 1847 in Barasat, a suburb of Calcutta (later the school was named Kalikrishna Girls' High School).

While this might suggest that there was no positive British contribution during the Raj era, that is not entirely the case. Missionaries' wives such as Martha Mault née Mead and her daughter Eliza Caldwell née Mault are rightly remembered for pioneering the education and training of girls in south India. This practise initially met with local resistance, as it flew in the face of tradition. Raja Rammohan Roy's efforts led to the abolition of Sati under Governor-General William Cavendish-Bentinck in 1829. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's crusade for improvement in the situation of widows led to the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. Many women reformers such as Pandita Ramabai also helped the cause of women.

Kittur Chennamma, queen of the princely state Kittur in Karnataka^{[citation needed]}, led an armed rebellion against the British in response to the Doctrine of lapse. Abbakka Rani, queen of coastal Karnataka, led the defence against invading European armies, notably the Portuguese in the 16th century. Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Queen of Jhansi, led the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British. She is now widely considered as a national hero. Begum Hazrat Mahal, the co-ruler of Awadh, was another ruler who led the revolt of 1857. She refused deals with the British and later retreated to Nepal. The Begums of Bhopal were also considered notable female rulers during this period. They did not observe purdah and were trained in martial arts.

Chandramukhi Basu, Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi were some of the earliest Indian women to obtain a degree.

In 1917, the first women's delegation met the Secretary of State to demand women's political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Women's Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927^{[citation needed]}. In 1929, through the efforts of Mahomed Ali Jinnah, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed, stipulating fourteen as the minimum age of marriage for a girl.^[22][28] Though Mahatma Gandhi himself married at the age of thirteen, he later urged people to boycott child marriages and called upon young men to marry child widows.^[29]

Women played an important part in India's independence struggle. Some famous freedom fighters include Bhikaji Cama, Dr. Annie Besant, Pritilata Waddedar, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani and Kasturba Gandhi. Other notable names include Muthulakshmi Reddy and Durgabai Deshmukh. The Rani of Jhansi Regiment of Subhas Chandra Bose's Indian National Army consisted entirely of women, including Captain Lakshmi Sahgal. Sarojini Naidu, a poet and freedom fighter, was the first Indian woman to become President of the Indian National Congress and the first woman to become the governor of a state in India.

Independent India

Women in India now participate fully in areas such as education, sports, politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc.^[7] Indira Gandhi, who served as Prime Minister of India for an aggregate period of fifteen years, is the world's longest serving woman Prime Minister.^[30]

The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity (Article 16), and equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)). In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42).^[31]

Feminist activism in India gained momentum in the late 1970s. One of the first national-level issues that brought women's groups together was the Mathura rape case. The acquittal of policemen accused of raping a young girl Mathura in a police station led to country-wide protests in 1979-1980. The protests, widely covered by the national media, forced the Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure Code, and the Indian Penal Code; and created a new offence, custodial rape.^[31] Female activists also united over issues such as female infanticide, gender bias, women's health, and women's literacy.

Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India,^[32] many women groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh and other states.^[31] Many Indian Muslim women have questioned the fundamental leaders' interpretation of women's rights under the Shariat law and have criticized the triple talaq system.^[22]

In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed Women's Association (SEWA) have played a major role in the advancement of women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as leaders of local movements; for example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's Empowerment (Swashakti).^[22] The National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women came was passed in 2001.^[33]

In 2006, the case of Imrana, a Muslim rape victim, was highlighted by the media. Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that Imrana should marry her father-in-law led to widespread protests, and finally Imrana's father-in-law was sentenced to 10 years in prison. The verdict was welcomed by many women's groups and the All India Muslim Personal Law Board.^[34]

In 2010 March 9, one day after International Women's day, Rajya Sabha passed the Women's Reservation Bill requiring that 33% of seats in India's Parliament and state legislative bodies be reserved for women.^[35]

Timeline

The steady change in their position can be highlighted by looking at what has been achieved by women in the country:

• 1848: Jyotirao Phule, along with his wife Savitribai Phule, opened a school for girls in Pune, India. Savitribai Phule became the first women teacher in India.
• 1879: John Elliot Drinkwater Bethune established the Bethune School in 1849, which developed into the Bethune College in 1879, thus becoming the first women's college in India.
• 1883: Chandramukhi Basu and Kadambini Ganguly became the first female graduates of India and the British Empire.
• 1886: Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi became the first women from India to be trained in Western medicine.
• 1905: Suzanne RD Tata becomes the first Indian woman to drive a car.^[36]
• 1916: The first women's university, SNDT Women's University, was founded on 2 June 1916 by the social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve with just five students.
• 1917: Annie Besant became the first female president of the Indian National Congress.
• 1919: For her distinguished social service, Pandita Ramabai became the first Indian woman to be awarded the Kaisar-i-Hind Medal by the British Raj.
• 1925: Sarojini Naidu became the first Indian born female president of the Indian National Congress
• 1927: The All India Women's Conference was founded.
• 1944: Asima Chatterjee became the first Indian woman to be conferred the Doctorate of Science by an Indian university
• 1947: On 15 August 1947, following independence, Sarojini Naidu became the governor of the United Provinces, and in the process became India's first woman governor.
• 1951: Prem Mathur of the Deccan Airways becomes the first Indian women commercial pilot.
• 1953: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit became the first woman (and first Indian) president of the United Nations General Assembly
• 1959: Anna Chandy becomes the first Indian woman judge of a High Court (Kerala High Court)^[37]
• 1963: Sucheta Kriplani became the Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh, the first woman to hold that position in any Indian state.
• 1966: Captain Durga Banerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot of the state airline, Indian Airlines.
• 1966: Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay wins Ramon Magsaysay award for community leadership.
• 1966: Indira Gandhi becomes the first woman Prime Minister of India
• 1970: Kamaljit Sandhu becomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in the Asian Games
• 1972: Kiran Bedi becomes the first female recruit to join the Indian Police Service.^[38]
• 1979: Mother Teresa wins the Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the first Indian female citizen to do so.
• 1984: On 23 May, Bachendri Pal became the first Indian woman to climb Mount Everest.
• 1989: Justice M. Fathima Beevi becomes the first woman judge of the Supreme Court of India.^[39]
• 1997: Kalpana Chawla becomes the first India-born woman to go into space.^[40]
• 1992: Priya Jhingan becomes the first lady cadet to join the Indian Army (later commissioned on 6 March 1993)^[41]
• 1994: Harita Kaur Deol becomes the first Indian woman pilot in the Indian Air Force (IAF), on a solo flight.
• 2000: Karnam Malleswari became the first Indian woman to win an Olympic medal (bronze medal in the 2000 Summer Olympics at Sydney)
• 2002: Lakshmi Sahgal became the first Indian woman to run for the post of President of India.
• 2004: Punita Arora became the first woman in the Indian Army to don the highest rank of Lieutenant General.
• 2007: Pratibha Patil becomes the first woman President of India.
• 2009: Meira Kumar became the first woman Speaker of Lok Sabha, the lower house in Indian Parliament

Culture

A sari (a long piece of fabric wound around the body) and salwar kameez are worn by women all over India. A bindi is part of a woman's make-up. Despite common belief, the bindi on the forehead does not signify marital status; however, the Sindoor does.^[42]

Rangoli (or Kolam) is a traditional art very popular among Indian women.

Education and economic development

According to 1992-93 figures, only 9.2% of the households in India were headed by females. However, approximately 35% of the households below the poverty line were found to be headed by females.^[43]

Education

Though it is gradually increasing, the female literacy rate in India is less than the male literacy rate.^[44] Far fewer girls than boys are enrolled in school, and many girls drop out.^[31] In urban India, girls are nearly on a par with boys in terms of education. However, in rural India girls continue to be less well-educated than boys. According to the National Sample Survey Data of 1997, only the states of Kerala and Mizoram have approached universal female literacy. According to scholars, the major factor behind improvements in the social and economic status of women in Kerala is literacy.^[31]

Under the Non-Formal Education programme (NFE), about 40% of the NFE centres in states and 10% of the centres in UTs are exclusively reserved for females.^{[citation needed]} As of 2000, about 300,000 NFE centres were catering to about 7.42 million children. About 120,000 NFE centres were exclusively for girls.^{[citation needed]}

According to a 1998 report by the U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barriers to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in the curriculum (female characters being depicted as weak and helpless).^[45]

Workforce participation

Contrary to common perception, a large percentage of women in India work.^[46] National data collection agencies accept that statistics seriously understate women's contribution as workers.^[31] However, there are far fewer women than men in the paid workforce. In urban India, women participate in the workforce in impressive numbers. For example, in the software industry 30% of the workforce is female.^[47] In the workplace women enjoy parity with their male counterparts in terms of wages and roles.

In rural India in the agriculture and allied industrial sectors, females account for as much as 89.5% of the labour force.^[43] In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total labour. According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted for 94% of total employment in dairy production in India. Women constitute 51% of the total employed in forest-based small-scale enterprises.^[43]

One of the most famous female business success stories is the Shri Mahila Griha Udyog Lijjat Papad. In 2006, Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, who founded Biocon, one of India's first biotech companies, was rated India's richest woman. Lalita D. Gupte and Kalpana Morparia were the only businesswomen in India who made the list of the Forbes World's Most Powerful Women in 2006. Gupte ran ICICI Bank, India's second-largest bank, until October 2006 ^[48] and Morparia is CEO of JP Morgan India.^[49]

Land and property rights

In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a share of parental property.^[31] Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women continue to have little access to land and property.^[50] In fact, some of the laws discriminate against women, when it comes to land and property rights.^[51]

The Hindu personal laws of 1956 (applying to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains) gave women rights to inheritances. However, sons had an independent share in the ancestral property, while the daughters' shares were based on the share received by their father. Hence, a father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the ancestral property, but a son would continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally, married daughters, even those facing marital harassment, had no residential rights in the ancestral home. Thanks to amendment of the Hindu laws in 2005, women now have the same status as men.^[52]

In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Shah Bano, an elderly divorced Muslim woman, was eligible for maintenance money. However, the decision was vociferously opposed by fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal law. The Union Government subsequently passed the Muslim Women's (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act.^[53]

Similarly, Christian women have struggled over years for equal rights in divorce and succession. In 1994, all churches, jointly with women's organisations, drew up a draft law called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government has still not amended the relevant laws.^[22]

Crimes against women

Police records in India show a high incidence of crimes against women. The National Crime Records Bureau reported in 1998 that by 2010 growth in the rate of crimes against women would exceed the population growth rate.^[31] Earlier, many crimes against women were not reported to police due to the social stigma attached to rape and molestation. Official statistics show a dramatic increase in the number of reported crimes against women.^[31]

Acid Throwing

A Thomas Reuters Foundation survey ^[54] says that India is the fourth most dangerous place in the world for women to live in.^[55] Women belonging to any class, caste, creed or religion can be victims of this cruel form of violence and disfigurement, a premeditated crime intended to kill or maim permanently and act as a lesson to put a woman in her place. In India, acid attacks on women^[56] who dared to refuse a man's proposal of marriage or asked for a divorce ^[57] are a form of revenge. Acid is cheap, easily available, and the quickest way to destroy a woman's life. The number of acid attacks have been rising^[58]

Child marriage

Child marriage has been traditionally prevalent in India and continues to this day. Historically, child brides would live with their parents until they reached puberty. In the past, child widows were condemned to a life of great agony, shaved heads, living in isolation, and being shunned by society.^[29] Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice.^[59]

According to UNICEF’s “State of the World’s Children-2009” report, 47% of India's women aged 20–24 were married before the legal age of 18, rising to 56% in rural areas.^[60] The report also showed that 40% of the world's child marriages occur in India.^[61]

Domestic violence

The number of incidents of domestic violence is higher among the lower Socio-Economic Classes (SECs).^{[citation needed]} The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 came into force on 26 October 2006.

Dowry

In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act,^[62] making dowry demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported. In the 1980s, numerous such cases were reported.^[46]

In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) Rules were framed.^[63] According to these rules, a signed list should be maintained of presents given at the time of the marriage to the bride and the bridegroom. The list should contain a brief description of each present, its approximate value, the name of who has given the present, and relationship to the recipient. However, such rules are rarely enforced.

A 1997 report^[64] claimed that each year at least 5,000 women in India die dowry-related deaths, and at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional. The term for this is "bride burning" and is criticized within India itself. Amongst the urban educated, such dowry abuse has reduced considerably.

Female infanticide and sex-selective abortion

In India, the male-female sex ratio is skewed dramatically in favour of males, the chief reason being the high number of females who die before reaching adulthood.^[31] Tribal societies in India have a less skewed sex ratio than other caste groups. This is in spite of the fact that tribal communities have far lower income levels, lower literacy rates, and less adequate health facilities.^[31] Many experts suggest the higher number of males in India can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions.

Ultrasound scanning constitutes a major leap forward in providing for the care of mother and baby, and with scanners becoming portable, these advantages have spread to rural populations. However, ultrasound scans often reveal the sex of the baby, allowing pregnant women to decide to abort female foetuses and try again later for a male child. This practice is usually considered the main reason for the change in the ratio of male to female children being born. In 1994 the Indian government passed a law forbidding women or their families from asking about the sex of the baby after an ultrasound scan (or any other test which would yield that information) and also expressly forbade doctors or any other persons from providing that information. However, in practice this law (like the law forbidding dowries) is widely ignored, and levels of abortion on female foetuses remain high and the sex ratio at birth keeps getting more skewed. ^[65]

Female infanticide (killing of girl infants) is still prevalent in some rural areas.^[31] Sometimes this is infanticide by neglect, for example families may not spend money on critical medicines or withhold care from a sick girl.

Continuing abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for sex-selective abortions and female infanticides in India.

Rape

Rape in India has been described by Radha Kumar as one of India's most common crimes against women^[66] and by the UN’s human-rights chief as a “national problem”.^[67] In the 1980s, women's rights groups lobbied for marital rape to be declared unlawful, as until 1983, the criminal law (amendment) act stated that "sexual intercourse by a man with his own wife, the wife not being under fifteen years of age is not rape". Marital rape is now illegal in India but is still widespread.^[68] While per-capita reported incidents are quite low compared to other countries, even developed countries,^[69][70] a new case is reported every 20 minutes.^[71][72] New Delhi has the highest rate of rape-reports among Indian cities.^[73] Sources show that rape cases in India have doubled between 1990 and 2008.^[74] According to the National Crime Records Bureau, 24,206 rape cases were registered in India in 2011, although experts agree that the number of unreported cases is much higher.^[75]

Sexual harassment

Eve teasing is a euphemism used for sexual harassment or molestation of women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidents of sexual harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed^[76] to prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings or in any other manner.

Of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990, half related to molestation and harassment in the workplace.^[31] In 1997, in a landmark judgement^[ambiguous], the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers.^[31]

Trafficking

The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956.^[77] However many cases of trafficking of young girls and women have been reported. These women are either forced into prostitution, domestic work or child labour.

Other concerns

Social opinions

In the wake of several brutal rape attacks in the capital city of Delhi debates held in other cities revealed that men believed women who dressed provocatively deserved to get raped many of the correspondents stated women incited men to rape them.^[78][79]

Health

The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, especially rural ones, girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.^[31]

The maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world.^[22] Only 42% of births in the country are supervised by health care professionals. Most women deliver with help from women in the family who often lack the skills and resources to save the mother's life if it is in danger.^[31] According to UNDP Human Development Report (1997), 88% of pregnant women (age 15-49) were found to be suffering from anaemia.^[43]

Eve teasing

Eve teasing is a euphemism used in India and sometimes Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal^[80][81] for public sexual harassment, street harassment or molestation of women by men, with Eve being a reference to the biblical Eve.^[82]

Family planning

The average woman in rural areas of India has little or no control over becoming pregnant. Women, particularly women in rural areas, do not have access to safe and self-controlled methods of contraception. The public health system emphasises permanent methods like sterilisation, or long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilization accounts for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation accounting for almost 95% of all sterilisations.^[31]

Sex ratios

India has a highly skewed sex ratio, which is attributed to sex-selective abortion and female infanticide affecting approximately one million female babies per year.^[83] The government stated that in 2011 India was missing three million girls and there are now 48 fewer girls per 1,000 boys than there were in 1981.^[84]

Sanitation

In 2011 a "Right to Pee" (as called by the media) campaign began in Mumbai, India's largest city.^[85] Women, but not men, have to pay to urinate in Mumbai, despite regulations against this practice. Women have also been sexually assaulted while urinating in fields.^[85] Thus, activists have collected more than 50,000 signatures supporting their demands that the local government stop charging women to urinate, build more toilets, keep them clean, provide sanitary napkins and a trash can, and hire female attendants.^[85] In response, city officials have agreed to build hundreds of public toilets for women in Mumbai, and some local legislators are now promising to build toilets for women in every one of their districts.^[85]

Notable Indian women

Education

Savitribai Phule was a social reformer. Along with her husband, Mahatma Jotiba Phule, she played an important role in improving women's rights in India during British Rule. Savitribai was the first female teacher of the first women's school in India and also considered to be the pioneer of modern Marathi poetry. In 1852 she opened a school for Untouchable caste girls.

Arts and entertainment

Singers and vocalists such as M.S. Subbulakshmi, Gangubai Hangal, Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle are widely revered in India. Anjolie Ela Menon is a famous painter.

Sports

Although in general the women's sports scenario in India is not very good, some Indian women have made notable achievements in the field. Some famous female sportspersons in Indian include P. T. Usha, J. J. Shobha (athletics), Kunjarani Devi (weightlifting), Diana Edulji (cricket), Saina Nehwal (badminton), Koneru Hampi (chess) and Sania Mirza (tennis). Female Olympic medalists from India include weightlifter Karnam Malleswari (bronze, 2000), Saina Nehwal (bronze, 2012), and boxer Mary Kom (bronze, 2012).

Politics

Through the Panchayat Raj institutions, over a million women have actively entered political life in India.^[50] As per the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, all local elected bodies reserve one-third of their seats for women. Although the percentages of women in various levels of political activity has risen considerably, women are still under-represented in governance and decisionmaking positions.^[31]

Literature

Many women writers are prominent in Indian literature as poets and story writers, such as Sarojini Naidu, Kamala Surayya, Shobha De, Arundhati Roy, Anita Desai. Sarojini Naidu is called the nightingale of India. Arundhati Roy won the Booker Prize (Man Booker Prize) for her novel The God of Small Things.

See also

Women in Hinduism Women in Sikhism Menstrual taboo Rape in India Sexism in India

Clothing in India Indian women in dance List of Indian women artists List of Indian film actresses Women's Reservation Bill

References

Further reading

• Clarisse Bader (2001) [1925]. Women in Ancient India. Trubner's Oriental Series, Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-24489-3.
• Kumar, Radha (1997). History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women's Rights and Feminism in India, 1800-1990. Zubaan. ISBN 8185107769.

External links

• An Automated Geo tagged live feed tracking Violence on Women in India
• An Automated Twitter Account tracking Violence on Women in India
• "Nothing to Go Back To - The Fate of the Widows of Vrindavan, India" WNN - Women News Network
• National Commission for Women
• Ministry of Women & Child Development
• South Asian Women's NETwork (SAWNET)
• Women of the Mughal Dynasty
• Indian women & Dowry law misuse
• Women of India
• 21 Top Women CEOs of India
• The Bangle Code - fiction related to unwritten social rules that Indian women have to deal with
• A global network for Indian Women
• CRS Center for Social Research
• Ewomen from SRCAC-FSCW in Lucknow

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